History Of genome editing
Timeline:
Late 1860s- The discovery of DNA by Friedrich Miescher. (1)
Late 1880s- Phoebus Levene did extensive research about the DNA molecules. (1)
1920s- Erwin Chargaff discovered the primary chemical components of DNA and the way that they attach one another. (1)
1953- James Watson and Francis Crick found the three-dimensional double helix structure of DNA (2)
1970s- Frederick Sanger, as well as the contributions from many other scientists and organizations, were able to independently invent a method of genome sequencing (2) This was not only able to read DNA, but increase the affectivity and decrease the cost and time of genome sequencing. (1)
Around 1975- The Sanger Method, which is also known as the Chain Termination Method, evolved into the method of “shotgun” sequencing (described in “Present Technology”). Shotgun sequencing caused genome sequencing to become much quicker and to be the most widely used method. (1) The effect of this process was genome sequencing going viral.
1983- Kary Mullis invented the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). The PCR is able to make many copies of DNA segments in a simple and inexpensive way, such as diagnosing diseases, identifying bacteria and viruses, and recognizing criminals for crime scenes. (1)
1990- The Human Genome Project began.
1984- The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), National Institutes of Health (NIH), and international groups held conferences to discus the human genome. (2)
1988- The idea of mapping the human genome was presented in order to find genetic maps, physical maps, and the complete nucleotide sequence map of the human chromosomes. (2)
2003- Scientist were able to accurately map the human genome. (1)
September, 2012- Genome editing began with the discovery of epigenetic editing. (3) Epigenetics is able to shape the structure of the genome by tightly wrapping inactive genes to making them unreadable, and relaxing active genes to make them readable. While DNA is the same all of your life, epigenetics are flexible based on signals from outside sources. (4)
April, 2013- The CRISPR/Cas system was used on zebrafish. (3)
June, 2013- The CRISPR method is used as a user-friendly transcriptional repressor. (3)
November, 2013- Epigenetic editing targets DNA demethylation, the process that is able to remove a methyl group from DNA nucleotides, which induces gene expression. (3)
February 5, 2014- Chinese researchers conducted experiments on monkeys using the CRISPR/Cas9 method of genome editing. (3)
April, 2014- The CRISPR/Cas9 method was able cure its first human related genes found in mice. This was able to happen by correcting a mutation to create a healthy phenotype.
May, 2014- Genome editing and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) develop a “heart-on-chip” technology to reveals specific mutations of a heart abnormality. A synthetic heart is then created based on that information. Researchers use whole genome editing in human pluripotent stem cell clones to see how much collateral damage the new CRISPR/Cas9 and TALENs nucleus tools present. They found a very low amount of off-target mutations. (3)
July, 2014- The CRISPR/Cas9 technology was used in haematopoietic cells and mice. A novel drug inducible lentiviral system was developed to deliver platform cells needed in the methods to cells allowing an easy and rapid way of genome engineering.
August, 2014- After combing the CRISPR/Cas9 and ChAP-MS, a new tool was made to see every protein of a specific genomic region. (3)
August, 2014- The short guide RNA (sgRNA) directs the Cas9 to a specific target. The sgRNA was modified to make it reach a wider variety of locations in the genome. (3)
August, 2014- Scientists applied ChIP-Seq to prove that Cas9 can sometimes cause off-target effect. (3)
August, 2014- Patient’s specifically induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are added to the CRISPR/Cas9 method. This allowed the system to meet more specific requirements when editing DNA. (3)
Current Day Genome Sequencing- Genome sequencing technology vary between many manufacturers. A few of the more common sellers of genome sequencers are Applies Biosystems, Illuminia, Roche, Qiagen, Beckman Coulter, and Life Technologies. (5)
Current Day Genome Editing- The main ways of genome editing are Zink-Finger Nucleus, TALENs, and CRISPR/Cas9. Zink-Finger was the first programmable genome editing tool that relies on proteins. It is has inconsistent results and can be negatively impacted by small uncontrollable activities that naturally occur in the human body. (6) The TALENs and CRISPR/Cas9 methods are relatively similar. However, the TALENs method is not as efficient as the CRISPR/Cas9 method because CRISPR/Cas9 uses RNA guides for precision DNA cutting, causing it to be more precise and safe. It is also able to be used with multiple cells at once.
(1) Nature.com. Nature Publishing Group, n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2015.
(2) Nyren, P., The History of Pyrosequencing., Methods Mol Biol., 2006; 373:1-14
(3) "Genome Sequencing: A History." Genome Sequencing: A History. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2015.
(4) "Genome Editing Timeline." EpiGenie Epigenetics and NonCoding RNA News. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2015.
(5) "How We Study The Microbiome." How We Study The Microbiome. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Jan. 2015.
(6)"What Is Zinc Finger Nuclease (ZFN) Technology?" Sigma-Aldrich. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2015.
Late 1860s- The discovery of DNA by Friedrich Miescher. (1)
Late 1880s- Phoebus Levene did extensive research about the DNA molecules. (1)
1920s- Erwin Chargaff discovered the primary chemical components of DNA and the way that they attach one another. (1)
1953- James Watson and Francis Crick found the three-dimensional double helix structure of DNA (2)
1970s- Frederick Sanger, as well as the contributions from many other scientists and organizations, were able to independently invent a method of genome sequencing (2) This was not only able to read DNA, but increase the affectivity and decrease the cost and time of genome sequencing. (1)
Around 1975- The Sanger Method, which is also known as the Chain Termination Method, evolved into the method of “shotgun” sequencing (described in “Present Technology”). Shotgun sequencing caused genome sequencing to become much quicker and to be the most widely used method. (1) The effect of this process was genome sequencing going viral.
1983- Kary Mullis invented the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). The PCR is able to make many copies of DNA segments in a simple and inexpensive way, such as diagnosing diseases, identifying bacteria and viruses, and recognizing criminals for crime scenes. (1)
1990- The Human Genome Project began.
1984- The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), National Institutes of Health (NIH), and international groups held conferences to discus the human genome. (2)
1988- The idea of mapping the human genome was presented in order to find genetic maps, physical maps, and the complete nucleotide sequence map of the human chromosomes. (2)
2003- Scientist were able to accurately map the human genome. (1)
September, 2012- Genome editing began with the discovery of epigenetic editing. (3) Epigenetics is able to shape the structure of the genome by tightly wrapping inactive genes to making them unreadable, and relaxing active genes to make them readable. While DNA is the same all of your life, epigenetics are flexible based on signals from outside sources. (4)
April, 2013- The CRISPR/Cas system was used on zebrafish. (3)
June, 2013- The CRISPR method is used as a user-friendly transcriptional repressor. (3)
November, 2013- Epigenetic editing targets DNA demethylation, the process that is able to remove a methyl group from DNA nucleotides, which induces gene expression. (3)
February 5, 2014- Chinese researchers conducted experiments on monkeys using the CRISPR/Cas9 method of genome editing. (3)
April, 2014- The CRISPR/Cas9 method was able cure its first human related genes found in mice. This was able to happen by correcting a mutation to create a healthy phenotype.
May, 2014- Genome editing and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) develop a “heart-on-chip” technology to reveals specific mutations of a heart abnormality. A synthetic heart is then created based on that information. Researchers use whole genome editing in human pluripotent stem cell clones to see how much collateral damage the new CRISPR/Cas9 and TALENs nucleus tools present. They found a very low amount of off-target mutations. (3)
July, 2014- The CRISPR/Cas9 technology was used in haematopoietic cells and mice. A novel drug inducible lentiviral system was developed to deliver platform cells needed in the methods to cells allowing an easy and rapid way of genome engineering.
August, 2014- After combing the CRISPR/Cas9 and ChAP-MS, a new tool was made to see every protein of a specific genomic region. (3)
August, 2014- The short guide RNA (sgRNA) directs the Cas9 to a specific target. The sgRNA was modified to make it reach a wider variety of locations in the genome. (3)
August, 2014- Scientists applied ChIP-Seq to prove that Cas9 can sometimes cause off-target effect. (3)
August, 2014- Patient’s specifically induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are added to the CRISPR/Cas9 method. This allowed the system to meet more specific requirements when editing DNA. (3)
Current Day Genome Sequencing- Genome sequencing technology vary between many manufacturers. A few of the more common sellers of genome sequencers are Applies Biosystems, Illuminia, Roche, Qiagen, Beckman Coulter, and Life Technologies. (5)
Current Day Genome Editing- The main ways of genome editing are Zink-Finger Nucleus, TALENs, and CRISPR/Cas9. Zink-Finger was the first programmable genome editing tool that relies on proteins. It is has inconsistent results and can be negatively impacted by small uncontrollable activities that naturally occur in the human body. (6) The TALENs and CRISPR/Cas9 methods are relatively similar. However, the TALENs method is not as efficient as the CRISPR/Cas9 method because CRISPR/Cas9 uses RNA guides for precision DNA cutting, causing it to be more precise and safe. It is also able to be used with multiple cells at once.
(1) Nature.com. Nature Publishing Group, n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2015.
(2) Nyren, P., The History of Pyrosequencing., Methods Mol Biol., 2006; 373:1-14
(3) "Genome Sequencing: A History." Genome Sequencing: A History. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2015.
(4) "Genome Editing Timeline." EpiGenie Epigenetics and NonCoding RNA News. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2015.
(5) "How We Study The Microbiome." How We Study The Microbiome. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Jan. 2015.
(6)"What Is Zinc Finger Nuclease (ZFN) Technology?" Sigma-Aldrich. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Jan. 2015.